History of Somalia: Pre-colonial, Colonial and Post Colonial

History of Somalianana Pre- compound, Colonial and Post ColonialChapter 1IntroductionThe work pertains to the pre- colonial colonial and post colonial report of Somalia and the factors it does contain leading to the collapse of the do heavy of Somalia. Further more(prenominal) research leave behind demonstrate the get off out of the harm on the international and regional politics. It should be bear in theme that the Somali issue is interlacing in nature and therefore at the end of the paper, the commentator should on a lower floorstand the nature of Somalias tribulations. Note that one of the features of Afri goat politics is that it comprises what can be considered as the pommel governmental weakness, that is political disequilibrium, and verbalize failure and Somalia argon a case among some others.Somalia is situated on the interrogativeable Horn of Africa, with a total population of 15 to 17 million batch and extending into the Indian Ocean, Somalias harbors b e vivid portholes of c all(prenominal) for traders sailing to and from India. So the coast of the region is much visited by contradictoryers, in limited Arabs and Persians. But in the interior the Somali argon left to their own arrangements. It is b revisioned in the northerly by Djibouti, in the west by Ethiopia and in the south by Kenya.Chapter 1.1Pre-colonial and colonial SomaliaBy the primordial 1800th European diverts begins to crop up in Somalia, the coasts were employ as a coaling station for ships to India. Somalia was an important port of call on the Indian trade route, scarce its aridity and hostility fueled hesitation on the colonization issue. In the 1880s, France, Britain, Italy and Ethiopia competed for the Somali territory, the four competitors agreed among them and sh ard the land, the northern cleave were shared among french and British(now Djibouti and Eritrea) and the coastal regions were annexed by Italian protectorate and Ethiopian. But their interest s grew when the Suez Canal opened creating stress betwixt Italy and Ethiopia, the repercussion of this tension were felt in the Ogaden region found amid Ethiopia and the coastal business office of Somalia an quick Italian region, which was fin colleague granted tot eh Ethiopians. By 1920 the colonial compromises in Somalia began to weaken through upheavals in the British Somaliland, and in the Ogaden region by Fascist Italy. The World War II complicated the feature as Italy violently acquired Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia, then known as the Italian East Africa, which surrounded British and cut Somaliland. Somalia got into a situation of constant colonial change until its freedom in 1960.Chapter 1.2Post-Independence Somalia and combatsAfter independence, Somalia looked forward to reunify with three large Somali groups trapped in other utters in French Somaliland, in Ethiopia and in northern Kenya. As Kenya and Ethiopia were in under the protection of the Western authors, Somalia turned towards the Soviet for help.But tranquillize Somalia kept a neutral stance in international affairs, yet this soon changed when newly elective President M. Egal was assassinated (1969) and the accession to power by Siad Barre who sided on the Soviet side, he devoted himself to a brutal Marxist dictatorship and hence opposing clan ideology and the clan outline which was an inherent part of the Somali culture. In 1977 Somalia attacked Ethiopian garrisons in the Ogaden but his ally that is the USSR soon turned on the Ethiopian side and Ethiopia used Soviet support to take back the Ogaden in 1978. Having lost its ally and with thousands of refugee coming back, Somalia foremaned towards a thick-skulled abyss where it still lies.To understand the collapse of the Somali extract is a complex issue, but as a sum up of the issue it can be verbalise that it was due to both, historical and cultural legacy. From a political point of suck it can be utter that during the 19th century, Somalia has been divided into five regions, namely French Somaliland (Djibouti), British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland, Ethiopia (Ogaden) and the Kenyan Northern landmark District. But since its independence in July 1960, the main objective of the nationalist was to reunite the whole territory, thing which was troublesome as it implied conflicts with its neighborhood. Such ideology represents also a constant threat to all the countries concerned, that is Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya. As a result, it weakened Somalias regional economicalal development and its diplomatic traffic.Culturally speaking, it can be seen that Somalia is a complex body made up of several clan and sub-clans of nomads and pastorals. However the Somali believe that the clan dodging is their safeguard and protects them against foreigners, nevertheless, this belief is more complicated than it can appear. Moreover, above all they attach a deep affiliation to kinship and hence, for the Somali it can be sum up the like the followingFamilies against families in a clan.Clan against clan in SomaliaAnd Somalia against the World.The conflicts among clan is due spilling hereditary lineage and Siad Barre governing could stay fresh itself due to that Barre was able to play the game of rivalries between clans, furthermore, it is to be noted that major armed political groups are clan based. In the after effects of this disaster guerrilla groups, clan-based are stocked in and around Somalia with the intention of bringing down Siads repressive and centralizing regime. By 1988 the result was a full-of-the-moon-scale civil war, resulting in the overthrow of Barre in 1991. He joined his own clan, becoming one warlord among legion(predicate) in this increasingly chaotic nation. In 1991 the faction discoverling the radiation patterner British Somaliland confuses matters by declaring its independence as the republic of Somaliland. remote Somaliland, the south and central Somalia i s under constant conflict and conquest by rival clans and establishment of de facto government(Ali Mahdi) but the interrogation was not about how to shape but who rules as the tension revolved around clan supremacy .Humanitarian turmoil reaches its peak and armed conflict generated provender and health crisis but the situation is such that foreign intervention is difficult due to violent respons towards foreign shell outs. on that point is often a danger that fundamentalist peep into conflicts and tries to take advantage of the situation, the Islamic Courts join confirmed the fundamentalists habit in Somalia extending its ideology. This Islamic fundamentalist group briefly tried to conquer Somalia.Chapter 1.3Somalia economic overviewThe delivery has long been heavily dependent on livestock and agriculture. Stock rearing is practised end-to-end the country and accounted for about 40% of GDP Gross Domestic Product and 65% of export earnings in 2000, consort to World Food Prog ramme (WFP) estimates. Most of the farmland lies between the Jubba and Shabeelle rivers in the south of the country. The small manufacturing orbit is based on the processing of uncouth growths. In the south, the absence of a central government has meant that no economic data bring forth been produced by national sources since 1990. In Somaliland, by contrast, the government collects tax and duties levied on trade.1This can give an overview of Somali economy, hence its vulnerability and dependency on foreign economic aid especially in Puntland region where the data concerning the economic activity are almost absent. And this also brings in the ecological factor which is not in favor of the Somalis a clear example is the great droughts of 2006 which has caused a major humanist in Somalia, which touched nearly 1.5 million pile, displacing 400,000 people due to a fall in crop production in practically all regions under cultivation2. But still, the Somalis economy is verbalize to maintain flourished after the collapse because the absence of a defer and its institutions, has given birth to a laissez faire economy watchled by private sector. Private newspapers and enterprises mushroomed creating one of the best telecommunication systems in Africa, with an approximate GDP of $5.524 billion, and Somalia natural resources are Largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, uranium, copper, salt, petroleum and natural gas. It produce also agricultural product such as banana, livestock, fish, corn, and has established markets(United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Oman) to export its product and imports petroleum products, food grain, construction material, etc from countries like Brazil, India, Kenya, Djibouti, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Oman. Furthermore, Somalia also benefit from foreign economic aid especially from the United recites of America, the European aggregate etc.3Its impact on the regional and international politics is more disastrous it can be utter in one paragraph which testament clarify the rest Somalia has been noted as a failed narrate in the international sphere, arms embargo imposed by the UN security council since 1992 till now, removal of humanitarian aid due to violence against the humanitarian aid volunteers, (particularly in Puntland state), and reinforcement of security in the disjunction of Aden and the Indian Ocean due to high piracy level in the zone, there is also the chore of mass migration of Somalis to Yemen.Chapter 2State and State failureStateA state is a settle of components and institution that enable it to survive. The main pillars of the state are the Government, territory and population. While population and territory are physical in nature government is institutional and most important, failing to establish one of the prefatory institutions, a country can be said to have failed. States function can be classified as ideal state functions and real state functions. Ideal state fun ctions are divided into tender functions and economic functions social functions being controlling the peoples fundamental rights and shore leave and economic functions being provision of goods and work and income redistribution. But the real state functions are unlike, they are divided into state natural functions that is power and coercion, social functions for example protection of rights and liberty and economic functions that is limited to provision of goods and services. The state is presented as a distinct political entity and the state has unlike characteristics that is Sovereignty each state is sovereign and that is what wees the narrow down between the states prevents the stop of one state into another states matter. Territory land and sea defined by a boundary. land the concept of nation is very important, sometimes a nation leads to the creation of a state and sometimes a state leads to the creation of a nation. Somalia is a state with one nation but divided thr ough cans. The Somali societys features match with the features of a nation that is equal language, equal culture, same religion, but different clans. Characteristics of a state are that it has also diplomatic recognition, internal government and internal loyalty from the part of its population. 4Chapter 2.1Why a state?State has two sets of definition, the organizational definitions that define the state as a set of governmental institutions making rules, controlling and supervising different element of the country. The functional definition depicts the state according to its social, economic, political and legal functions. The origins of the state dates back to the ancient civilization and the most antique form of state known is the Greek city state which evolved through time to give way to the young nation state. State is a common joint nowa mean solar days, members from each establishment institutions claim that they can serve it and manipulate it, for instance, judges clai m that they can discern its interests and politicians claim that they know how to run it. Liberals believed that the state should be a referee, Marxist sinister perception see the state as an instrument and relist perceive the state as a elitist organization of manipulators. A broader definition would be that the state is mainly shake uping of all powers dealings in society which acts as an automatic machine supervising the legal, economic, political and social elements of a country. assorted thinkers view the state differently and below are the principal thinkers view of the state. therefore, all the definitions show that a state is important and needed. 2Locke rejects any notion of subordination and with it the relationship that it maintains in relations between men and relationships between men and inferior creatures. There is no difference between them inherent among men, there is no hierarchy they are all free and sufficient in the eyes of God. The natural liberty requires both independence and equality it makes the political authority to consent. Locke argues that men are originally free and equal and that the origin of Governments is a free association. It therefore opposes the speculation of divine right monarchy and absolutism.Montesquieu developed in the enliven of laws theory of forms of government (monarchy, despotism, aristocratic republic, democratic republic). Its doctrine is based on separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial) and opposes the speculative theory of natural law. There is no noble savage, but various companies where several elements govern men climate, religion, morals.doubting Thomas Hobbes sees the state as an institution whose individuals are self-centered in nature. Left on their own, they can create a state of war, as he called it. Hence, Hobbes upholds an absolute ruler to control the state. The will of the sovereign is the will of god and law of the state is the will of the sovereign, therefore the sove reign or Leviathan, as he called it establishes the contract between various institutions and among individuals so as not to create booby hatch. The ruler is above law, the Leviathan is the state. So what can be deduced is that Hobbes defined the state as a primitive, individualist and anarchical institution where conflict of interest among individuals prevails and leads to collapse of the state, hence state must be a harsh institution which looks towards its survival, otherwise it would be the state of nature?But Jean Jacque Rousseau does not see the state as such. For him, the state and power is the evil that corrupts the good man. Rousseau corrects Hobbes by saying that it is state of nature is not just the removal of the governing body it is also the removal of all societal features that is culture, belief, religion and even understanding of ones own self. Therefore it can be deduced that according to Rousseau, the state is a set of societal features, that is culture, religion belief, rational view of others and ones own self and governing institution.Marxist, view the state as something totally different (The state) is a product of society at a certain stage of development it is the admission that this society has become heterogeneous in an insoluble contradiction with itself, that it is cleft into irreconcilable antagonisms which it is powerless to dispel. But in order that these antagonisms, classes with counterpoint economic interests, might not consume themselves and society in sterile struggle, a power ostensibly standing above society became necessary for the purpose of moderating the conflict, of keeping it within the bounds of order and this power, arisen out of society but placing itself above it, and increasingly alienating itself from it, is the state.5What Engels wants to explains is that the state is controlled by the economically paramount class, enabling it to maintain its control over the exploited classes. Although the state is usual ly the instrument of the economically dominant allele class, sometimes conflicting classes balance each other such that the state becomes somewhat independent.The state is part of the superstructure of society. Marx and Engels analyzed human society as divided into a material base and a superstructure that rests on it. The base is made up of the devices of production (machines, tools, and raw materials), the social classes, chiefly the exploiting and laboring classes, of the particular society, and the relations between these classes. The superstructure consists of political and cultural institutions, including the state, churches, schools, etc., as well as corresponding intellectual spheres politics, religion, science, art, etc. The state is a major, if not the major, element of this superstructure as per the Marxists.As per principles of International Law, a state is a accept and subject to international law only if it comprises of certain qualifications, that is a permanent popu lation, a defined territory, government, and mental ability to enter into relations with other states.6 Comparing these features to Somalia, it can be deduced that Somalia lacks two of these qualifications, that is capacity to enter in relations with other states and it has a weak government controlling limited territory. Therefore, Somalia is a state without its full managerial capacity, but still it is a sovereign state and is recognize as such by the international community, as defined by the Declaration on principles of international law Elements b). Each state enjoys the right inherent in full sovereignty and element c). Each state has the duty to deference the personality of other states7Chapter 2.2State failureA state does not collapse one day or another, a state weakens fails and then collapse. A weak state still have control on the majority of the country but cannot solve major issue or is illegitimate in the eyes of some portion of the population. In fact the strength of a state is judge on the level of obedience and legitimacy accorded to it by the nation. State failure is an instable state experiencing civil war or invasion, then, the state collapse this situation is the total paralysis of all institution of the state that is legal, economic, military and political. State failure is a sensible but tangible issue in Africa, moreover, before defining state failure and its implication in Africa, first of all there must be a variety and close comprehension of the subject and its various facets. State failure is two words with various definitions, because circle and factors leading to state failure vary from one country to another. Before looking into the core subject, definitions of the word state is important, moreover, the definitions of state also vary. State failure concerns essentially the interrelationship between models of authority, political control and institution building in a country. What makes Africa the appropriate model to examine st ate failure, is that it has experienced shifts of government, that is, from colonial to post colonial or from democracy to autocracy. The shift of power, from colonial to independent has created political instability in most country and in some state failure. In the case of Africa and particularly, Somalia, when the term state failure is coined, it, means the there is a failure to control and to promote human prospering.Government is normally organize of various institution to promote Culture, economic stability, security, rights, liberty, justice and what is more important is to abide by the concept of rule of law on the territory by all civilians. Hence these values are under the right of a governing body which delegates the particular responsibilities to institutions like the Army, Supreme Court, ministries, police force etc in respect of a Constitution8. There are some fit(p) and variable symptoms indicating a state collapse fixed symptoms being common symptoms present in a ll cases and variable symptoms being particular to the specific Country. Examples of fixed symptoms are failure in the provision of national and international security and the preservation of order, failure in the implementation of the rule of law, no existence of institutions of political freedom, channels of commerce and communication, lack of provision of an economic institution to promote growth and prosperity, and no presence of basic services such as health check services, power, running water, and control of the environmental commons, and civil war. Variable symptoms, here in the case of Somalia, would be piracy, but the issue of piracy is subject to debate because the state failure is not the only causes of piracy in Somalia, ecological factors are responsible too.Therefore, a state is weakens when it loses control one of these institutions or all, in other words the state failed to provide basic functions for its citizen. But state failure or collapse, is not an exacting event, it is rather an event of long lasting decay of the state due to internal or outside(a) factors, which will be explained later. Hence, the fall out of state failure is that the economy becomes weak, provision of education and heathland care disappear, proliferation of crime and violence and it also generates opposing groups often engaged in armed conflict, creating humanitarian crisis and often genocide, population shift, refugee crises and food shortage.Chapter 3Causes of the collapseCauses of the collapse can be divided and hence would be better understood, there are the founding causes and the contributing causes. Founding causes are those causes which are at the origin of the collapse of the state and contributing causes are as important as founding causes but have contributed to the collapse not originate it.The conflicts are to be divided into three categories it must be beard in mind that all these factors have contributed to the collapse of the Somali state, but at di fferent stages and different way. This chapter is an attempt to demonstrate how each causes has its importance throughout the failing process.The causes or factors of collapse are classified as such overlord cause(initiation of collapse) instableContributing causes (declining factors) weakFinal blow collapseOriginal causes these factors can also be referred to as the initiation to the state collapse that is the factors which rendered the state instable, but did not knock out the state. What is meant by instable is that those factors created a state of tension in the country that gave little fate for Somalia to progress, socially, economically, politically.Original causes are colonial subdivision of Somalia into five parts and offering Ethiopia in particular a great portion of the territory9 and social division of the Somali society into small clan-based mini-states that lacked an organizational skill to regroup themselves into a state. These two factors could be considered as the core factors of the collapse of the state by causing the institution of a weak and deformed state. But another core factor can be added to this that is upon management of the national resources and the fact that Somalia lack effectively trained human resources to substitute colonial disposition in running state institutions. The historical period for this condition is preceding the independence of Somalia in 1960.There are also the transitional causes which caused the state to collapse. Transit causes are mid causes these are for example the Barre collectivistic regime, and the final blow which lead to the downfall of Somalia.Chapter 3.1Clan systemIt should be bearded in mind the cultural traditions of Somalia do not allow the country to be accustomed to building a new state. The clan system in Somalia is both unite and divide, as explained above, the characteristic that unites, that it is a common form of social organization in Somalia. But the sharing feature is that there is hostility between clans and sub-clans. The clans are divided into two categories there are pastoral nomads and livestock mainly southern clans. But the conflict is mainly between pastoral nomadic clans and clans farmed.There are four major clans of noble families the Darood, Hawiye, Isaaq and Dir,. nonage groups and low-caste clans included the Bantu of Somalia (being the largest minority group), the Benadiri, Rer Hamar Brawanese, swahili, Fumal, Yibir, Yaxar, Madhiban, Hawrarsame, Muse Dheryo and Faqayaqub. One third of the population, approximately two million people are from minority groups. Intermarriage between these groups and noble clans is limited. Some of these groups have limited access to all social services that are available, including health and education. Minority groups had no armed militias and continue to be victims of murders, tortures, rapes, abductions and steal of land and property. These groups have continued to live in conditions of great poverty and suffer numerous forms of difference and exclusion.10As indicated in the JFFMR11 March 2004, the delegation met Omar Abdiaziz DaadDaad Omar, former Minister of the reconciliation of President Siad Barre from 1986 to 1990, said he is a Marehan himself and the nephew of Siad Barre and next to Siad Barre, the son closest. Daad Omar left Mogadishu in 1991 and returned several times since. Daad Omar said he works as a mediator in central Somalia and has been accredited for the peace process in Kenya to the Darood clan. Daad Omar explained it is too difficult for Marehan to live in Mogadishu, they are designed to be high because many of them used to work for the regime of Siad Barre. He stated that all members of the clan would Marehan to blame for the suffering caused by the SiadBarre regime and they risk being killed. Omada Daad estimated 200 people Marehan clan live in Mogadishu today that are able to stay there only because they were married with members of stronger clans. Marehan An indepe ndent could not live safely in Mogadishu and manage a business. Daad Omar said that Marehan who had worked for the regime of Siad Barre could not return to Mogadishu. Even members of the family of a Marehan who had worked for Siad Barre would have had bothers today. Any other clan member (eg a Hawiye and Habr Gedir) who had worked in the administration (including police) Siad Barre have no problems returning to Mogadishu today. But members of the Darood clan and Majerteen will not be able to live safely in Mogadishu, the Hawiye clans regard them as a challenge to their power The complexity of the Somali clan system, it is difficult to observe the clan, but it is easier to identify them when they fall into political factions. This complex political structure, where there is only way to contention and competition for resources and territorial control, can not make a good organization policy. Good organization policy refers here to standard policies every country, that is, establis hment of a modern state through democratic principles. But what was so undemocratic about the clan system? The answer is simple the clan system that has long existed in Somalia, as well as conflicts between clans, but these conflicts has been an obstacle to the unification of Somalia under a local body12 (after independence). An obstacle to the unification of Somalia that the issue of creating a modern state was another thing, it was more difficult with increasing conflict between the clan, where the modern nation-state was not the priority, the unification of the clans is paramount. But the intellectual elect(ip) choose the wrong option, they created the modern state in Somalia first and then tried to accommodate the clan, what followed was chaosWe can not find details of Somalia without being troubled by the importance of clan in the Somali culture, and it is so omnipresent that it is causing the conflict in Somalia. What brings the clan system as a basic factor for the collapse of the state is that, as mentioned above, it is an integral part of Somali culture, and furthermore, it has generated the de facto state by clan rivalries on then basis of clan identity. Siad Barre could remain so long at the head of Somalia because he used a policy of divide and rule and created rivalries between clans, favorising his own clan the main armed political groups as well that isUSC, SSDF, SNM, SPF, SDA, SDM.United Somali Congress (USC). The USC was created by the Hawiye clan in central Somalia around Mogadishu.Somali Salvation Democratic strawman (SSDF). The SSDF was created by the sub-clan of Darood Majerteen, who live in north-eastern Somalia.Somali National Movement (SNM). The SNM was created by the Issaq clan of north-west Somalia, it proclaimed the independence of Somaliland.Somali Patriotic Front (SPF). The SPF was established by the Ogaden sub-clan of Darood who live partly in the south and partly in central Somalia.Somali Democratic Movement (SDM). The SDM is t he movement Rahanwein clan they live in the south and west.Somali Democratic affiliation (SDA). The SDA is the advantage of living Dir clan in Somalias north-west.The question of invasion is also very important for the inter-clan conflicts. Unlike northern Somalia, also known as Somaliland, which consists of five districts, but primarily inhabited by people fro the Issaq clan, southern Somalia is not homogeneous. The regions south and central Somalia is under conquest and occupation of the armed forces different clan, who have no legitimacy on the cities and agricultural lands for which they fought and.Chapter 3.2Colonial division of Somali territoryThe colonial register of Somalia do not let anyone believe that this nation can easily form an effective state, the question that comes to mind all the readers is that the colonial history of Somalia, how can be linked to the collapse of the state. The countries sharing the same culture with the various rival clans, and the problem doe s not stop there, the colonial powers divided the land into portions thereby creating a situation of standstill, paralyzing the nation. As mentioned at the beginning, Somalia was formed by the union of two former colonial territories, British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland, which was more populous. But the colonial division affects the breakdown as follows Somali irredentism and conflict with Ethiopia and Kenya.When Somalia was coordinated in 1959, before independence in 1960, only the British and Italian Somaliland, which has created the new Somalia, there were still some Somalis living in Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti. In fact, this could be unified has been unified and the rest was considered that there was a Somali nation in these countries, Somalia and the whole is not united. And thats where the problem laid, Somali irredentism was much more important than solving the rivalries of clans that has brought the country to failure and collapse.The colonial history o f Somalia do not let anyone believe that this nation can easily form an effective state, the question that comes to mind all the readers is that how can the colonial history of Somalia, be linked to the collapse of the state.The countries sharing the same culture with the various rival clans, and the problem does not stop there, the colonial powers divided the land into portions thus creating a situation of standstill, paralyzing the nation. As mentioned at the beginning, Somalia was formed by the union of two former colonial territories, British Somaliland in the north and Italian Somaliland, which were more populous neglecting portions of Somali in Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. Therefore, the colonial division affects the collapse as follows Somali irredentism leading to conflict with Ethiopia and Kenya. When Somalia was unified in 1959, before independence in 1960, only the British and Italian Somaliland had created the new Somalia, there were still some Somalis living in Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti. In fact, what could be unified has been unified and the rest was unconsidered, there was a Somali nation in these countries, Somalia as a whole was not united. And thats where the problem laid, Somali irredentism was much more important than s